Watergate Paper - 1434 Words

Watergate Paper Paul Salabarria HIS/145 June 26, 2012 Jeff Wilson Watergate Paper Watergate was a scandal that involved a break-in into the offices of the Democratic National Committee during the Nixon administration. Watergate was one of the most famous political scandals in American history. Decades after Watergate historians and others continue to argue about its causes and significance (Brinkley, 2007). It marked a period that both weakened our relationships with other countries as well as weakened the public’s belief in the President. A majority of Americans believe that newspapers, radio and television are devoting too much space and time to covering the Watergate scandals (â€Å"53%,† 1974). Both Time and Newsweek reported that†¦show more content†¦Yet the public has already believed as much for some time now, and for that purpose the disclosure is superfluous (â€Å"Review and outlook,† 1974). Mayor Lindsay criticized the reporting of the Watergate scandal as contributing to â€Å"intolerable breakdown of the rule and the spirit of the law.† He chastised the press for disregarding grand-jury secrecy, punishing without due process of law and trial â€Å"by investigators who leak their suspicions before going to trial† (Schumach, 1973). The Watergate scandal appeared to have damaged the reputation of the United States abroad. Public interest in Watergate intensified virtually throughout the world, but there was no indication that it would significantly affect America’s foreign policy. Watergate had a great deal of radio and television coverage in most European countries and Watergate most certainly diluted Japanese confidence in America. The Russian leaders had staked a lot on personal relations with Mr. Nixon and did not want the President’s Watergate embarrassment to rub off on them (Collins, 1973). A leading Republican conservative called for President Nixon’s resignation, but Mr. Nixon reiterated his determination to stay in office. GOP Sen. James Buck ley issued his surprise call for the President’s immediate resignation at a morning news conference, stating that Mr. Nixon should quit â€Å"in order to preserve the presidency.† Mr.Show MoreRelatedTaking a Look at the Watergate Scandal1050 Words   |  5 PagesThe late 1960s to the mid-1970s was characterized by political controversy and instability. The Watergate crisis is the most infamous scandal that occurred within those years, and arguably, in American political history. The event occurred in 1972 and it redefined American political culture. Nixon’s involvement in the incident (and other controversies leading up to Watergate) led to a loss of faith in government and a transition to the public’s reliance on the media. However, Watergates long termRead MoreWatergate722 Words   |  3 Pagesstory of Watergate is both historically and politically interesting. It began to occur from the Pentagon Papers, in which Daniel Ellsberg handed over to the pr ess. The Pentagon Papers contained secret documents outlining the history of U.S. involvement in Vietnam (p.848).These secret documents would bring to light the deception of the the morning of June 17, 1972, at 2:30 a.m. 5 burglars were arrested inside the office of the Democratic National Committee, located inside of the Watergate buildingRead MoreThe Watergate Scandal Essay588 Words   |  3 Pagesscandals and corruption that they attempted to keep from the public. Many of those incidents didn’t stay secretly for long due to the change to modern day media. In this paper we have compiled together a few of those scandals to compose a writing discussing different cases of corruption and scandals within the government. The Watergate Scandal was an event that changed the face of the nation. It was the first time in the History of the United States that a president had been forced to resign from officeRead More The Watergate Scandal Essay1463 Words   |  6 PagesThe Watergate Scandal The mistrust most Americans feel toward the government officials and political parities of today can be traced back to the Watergate scandal of 1972, which led to the resignation of an American president. The crimes of the Watergate scandal included political burglary, bribery, extortion, wiretapping (phone tapping), conspiracy, obstruction of justice, destruction of evidence, tax fraud, illegal use of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the Federal Bureau ofRead MoreCtu History 101 Ip31029 Words   |  5 Pagesand the Watergate scandal. The first article is â€Å"The Washington Post Editorial Watergate: The unfinished business.† The other article that I will be discussing and comparing is one written by Dean Burch. â€Å"In Defense of Richard Nixon.† I will provide a brief summary of the two arguments as well as describe how the Watergate events changed American views in politics and politicians. I will also speculate how the events could have been different if the media and population during the Watergate scandalRead MoreEnron And The Watergate Of The Vietnam War1460 Words   |  6 Pagestrading and money laundering among others. Flashback to June 17, 1972, and the Watergate burglars who initiated one of the largest and most talked about scandals in American history. Richard Nixon served as president from January of 1969 to August of 1974 and was Commander in Chief during the Vietnam War, one of America’s darkest hours. In June of 1971, The New York Times began running a series called â€Å"The Pentagon Papers† which was an expose of the Defense Department’s secret history of the VietnamRead MoreWatergate : The Unfinished Business843 Words   |  4 PagesThe biggest political scandal in the US yet, the Watergate scandal follows a series of events leading up to the end of the Nixon presidency. Starting with the break-in of the Democratic National Committee in 1972, and the inconsistencies in subsequent investigat ions set the ball rolling toward the unpleasant end of Richard Nixon’s political career. Not only did it expose the conspiracy to subvert the political process, it also paved way for a wave of political and democratic reforms in the US. InRead MoreThe Watergate Scandal Essay1367 Words   |  6 PagesWhile the effects of Watergate had far-reaching consequences for journalism, not everything to come out of the scandal came to be positive. As a result of the Watergate scandal many journalists try to find a Watergate like story even where there is none, Monicagate is a perfect example. In addition, many critics of the media argue since Watergate many people have become disenfranchised with Medias constant negativity. Another result of Watergate is the use of the media as a tool for politicalRead MoreWatergate Scandal : The Downfall Of Richard Nixon920 Words   |  4 PagesThe Watergate Scandal was the downfall of Richard Nixon. It made Americans put less trust in the govern ment and built trust in the media. It all takes place at the Watergate Hotel. He led an extremely corrupt administration to get him re elected. He also was the first President to resign. The unethical organization that was formed was called the CRP (later creep). They helped Nixon get re elected in 1972. They used illegal tactics to get him re elected. They paid lawyers for the burglars whoRead MoreThe Watergate Scandal Essay examples1135 Words   |  5 PagesThe Watergate Scandal The Watergate Affair, is the worst political scandal in U.S. history. It led to the resignation of the president, Richard M. Nixon, after he became implicated in an attempt to cover up the scandal. The Watergate Affair refers to the break-in and electronic bugging in 1972, of the Democratic National Committee headquarters in the Watergate apartment, and office building complex in Washington D.C. The term was applied to several related scandals. More than thirty

Baseball Is America s National Pastime - 976 Words

The argument over which sport is originally Americas national past time is as enduring and intense as American sports themselves. Each and every week millions of people tune in to watch their favorite sports being played. Over the years baseball has traditionally been known as the national pastime among all sports, but the rich tradition and history behind baseball is still around and noticed, with that being said, baseball is still referred to as America’s national pastime. This can be attributed to many factors including a superior television product, more controlled violence, and legalized gambling with fantasy football and baseball. Each and every week millions of Americans tune in to watch their favorite sports. Basketball, baseball, football, golf, soccer, and racing all have a place and a market with the sports fans in America. Over the past two decades, baseball has been left behind while football has become America’s new national pastime (Kendrick, Scott. Baseball s Origins -- An Illustrated History Of Baseball. Baseball.about.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 07 Oct. 2015. Page.2). According to Steve Rushin, a respected writer for Sports Illustrated, â€Å"to say football has displaced baseball as the national pastime is laughably inadequate, like saying that TV has edged quilting as a popular diversion† (History: Birth of Pro Football. History: Birth of Pro Football. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Oct. 2015. Page.1). although baseball is still referred to as America’s national pastime,Show MoreRelatedAmerica s National Pastime Of Baseball Essay1518 Words   |  7 PagesSince its grand entry in the 19th centu ry, baseball has evolved to be one of the most popular sport nationally and to be known as America’s national pastime. This multibillion dollar industry attracts millions of fans worldwide throughout different regions. The origin of baseball is believed to have evolved from a ball-and-bat game called Seker-Hemant played by ancient Egyptians dating as far back as 2,500 BCE. Fast-forwarding time, modern day baseball began with the formation of the Cincinnati RedRead MoreBaseball And Its Impact On America s National Pastime Essay1481 Words   |  6 PagesSince its grand entry in the 19th century, baseball has evolved to be one of the most popular sport nationally and to be known as America’s national pastime. This multibillion dollar industry attracts millions of fans worldwide throughout different regions. The origin of baseball is believed to have evolved from a ball-and-bat game called Seker-Hemant played by ancient Egyptians dating as far back as 2,500 BCE. Fast-forw arding time, modern day baseball began with the formation of the Cincinnati RedRead MoreBaseball is the National Pastime1051 Words   |  5 PagesFor most sports fans there is nothing like opening day and a baseball field. In recent years I have over heard several people say Baseball is not the National Pastime or National Game any longer. When I query these people the typical response is Football is our new National pastime/game. Frank Deford (Nov 7, 2012) a writer for Sports Illustrated said, Baseball is what we used to be. Football is what we have become. I refuse to believe this based on my knowledge of both games. In this paperRead MoreBaseball : America s Pastime Of The Past1255 Words   |  6 PagesBaseball: America’s Pastime of the Past A pastime is a hobby that is performed in someone’s spare time. The term America’s pastime is something that the entire nation enjoys and participates in. Since its creation, baseball has taken the top spot as the nation’s favorite recreation. For generations it filled the homes of Americans whether it be via television, conversation, or participation. Families would travel together to their local baseball stadium and root for the home team. KidsRead MoreOrigins Of The Sport And The Battle For Integration Essay1496 Words   |  6 PagesBaseball has not always been the exciting, diverse, and traditional pastime as it is today. Before the glory days of televised sports, was its murky past. America’s pastime didn’t reflect what the country really represents at the core; a melting pot of people from different races and backgrounds. To understand how race has had an effect on baseball, one must look at the sport’s timeline. Starting f rom conception to pivotal events that shaped the game today, one can really see how the balance of powerRead MoreBreaking The Slump : Baseball934 Words   |  4 Pages â€Å"Baseball is America’s pastime, and that record is absolutely huge in the States.† This quote by tennis player Pete Sampras defines the reason Charles Alexander wrote the book Breaking the Slump: Baseball in the Great Depression Era. Alexander has complied a book about what baseball was like during the years when America lived in a time of great poverty and economic troubles. Alexander writes with the aim of writing a chronology of baseball and how it the happenings of the world influenced thisRead MoreThe League Baseball Became The National Pastime956 Words   |  4 PagesMajor League Baseball became the National Pastime. Since Major League Baseball has become the National Pastime the St. Louis Cardinals have had a rich history in baseball, for many years there have been many different teams won their respective divisions, have the best record in baseball, and win the amazing World Series. Although Major League Baseball has been around since the early 1800’s, since the year 2000 the St. Louis Cardinals have been one of the best teams in Major League Baseball. The StRead MoreBaseball : The Origin Of Baseball Essay1336 Words   |  6 PagesThe Origin Of Baseball With upwards of ten million people participating in the sport of baseball in the United States alone, it is apparent that baseball is one of the world’s most popular sports. Throughout the years, the sport of baseball has evolved from a humble game played on empty sandlots to â€Å"America’s national pastime.† The game has come a long way, but how did this game come to be? Everything has its humble beginnings, and baseball is no different. Games that resemble baseball have been aroundRead MoreThe Black Panthers Minor League Baseball Team1259 Words   |  6 PagesBlack Panthers Minor League Baseball team, where he was scouted by Branch Rickey, the President of the Brooklyn Dodgers. He soon joined the Montreal Royals (Brooklyn Dodger’s stepping stone). He was the first black baseball player to play on an all white team. He had to practice and sleep in Daytona Beach, Florida, when the rest of his team played in Sanford, Florida. He was eventually able to train with the team. On April 15, 1947, he played his first Major League Baseball game at Ebbets Field. OvercomingRead MoreHistory and Importance of Baseball in the US Essay1763 Words   |  8 PagesBaseball is an American icon. It is the Statue of Liberty, the bald eagle, ‘In God We Trust,’ Mount Rushmore, ice cream, apple pie, hot dogs, and rally monkeys. BASEBALL IS AMERICA.† At one time baseball held the hearts and captivated the minds of the majority of the United States of America with its luster and almost magical exuberance. It exerted this on minds of young children and all the way up to old men and women in America. Americans fell in love with the scent of ballpark hotdogs and the

Collision-avoidance between male and female pedestrians Free Essays

Abstract Real time observations were undertaken in order to ascertain the type of collision avoidance behaviour displayed by pedestrians in crowded and relatively empty areas. Results indicated that gender was the most significant variable in affecting the type of avoidance behaviour displayed by opposite-direction pedestrians sharing momentary close proximity. The larger percentage of female pedestrians displaying ‘closed pass’ behaviour and the tendency of males to display ‘open pass behaviour’ was significant (Chi Squared=308. We will write a custom essay sample on Collision-avoidance between male and female pedestrians or any similar topic only for you Order Now 396, df=1, p=0.01). The knowledge gained from this experiment confirms current notions of pedestrian avoidance behaviour and encourages the undertaking of further experiments on this topic, involving additional variables including age and direction. 1.0 Introduction It is recognised that collision avoidance between pedestrians occurs much earlier in relatively uncrowded spaces (Wolff, 1973; Collett Marsh, 1981; Burgess, 1983). Goffman (1972) noted that pedestrians typically passed each other on the right (‘pedestrian streaming’ or ‘lane formation’). Furthermore, pedestrian avoidance behaviour was noted as being achieved by individuals moving to the right. This was potentially due to the fact that right-handedness is more typical in the population. 1.1 Oncoming pedestrian avoidance Wolff (1973) noted a difference in oncoming pedestrian collision avoidance behaviour according to crowd density. A detour would be made if potential collisions were noted in time but at the highest densities wherein collision was inevitable, a â€Å"step-and-slide† movement was achieved. This involved â€Å"a slight angling of the body, a turning of the shoulder and an almost imperceptible side step† and was undertaken to avoid a guaranteed collision had either individual â€Å"walked directly ahead†. Collett Marsh (1981) describe two â€Å"step-and-slide† possibilities, either a ‘closed pass’, where the pedestrian turns away from the oncoming person or the ‘open pass’ wherein the body is turned towards the oncomer. Typically, men would favour the ‘open pass’ whilst women tended to use the ‘closed pass’ mechanism. 1.2 Avoiding same direction collisions Typically, pedestrians were found to position themselves behind the shoulder of another pedestrian. According to the speed of travel, ‘pedestrian clusters’ (pedestrian lanes) develop which grow proportionally with pedestrian numbers (Wolff, 1973). It is suggested that pedestrians believe lane formation aids in reducing collision likelihood. The following study will look at the strategies employed by males and females in order to avoid collisions whilst walking along a crowded street. The study was conducted in order to test the validity of previous experimental findings on this topic. It is hypothesised that male pedestrians will use a closed pass, and female pedestrians an open pass. A clear difference between adult collision avoidance behaviour by gender is expected. The null hypothesis (H0) was that there will be no difference between the type of pass used by males and females. The proposed alternative hypothesis (H1) was that there would be a difference in the type of collision avoidance behaviour made in adult pedestrians, according to their gender. 2.0 Materials Methods 2.1 Design The study involved 2279 adults, in a ratio of males: females (n=1161: n=1118 respectively). Further information, such as the age of the subjects was not recorded, as the experimental design was that of a naturalistic observational study. A between subjects design was chosen and three variables were recorded; the ‘closed pass’, the ‘open pass’ and the ‘neutral pass’.[1] The design was considered appropriate as each of the subjects were involved in only one of the above three group parameter variables. The independent (or predictor) variable was defined as the gender of the subjects, whilst the criterion (or dependent variable) was marked as the type of passing behaviour observed in the subjects. The criterion variable was hypothesised to differ according to the gender of the subject. In the design, a ‘closed’- and ‘open pass’ were defined according to Collett Marsh, (1981). 2.2 Procedure A data collection grid was used to note pedestrian collision avoidance behaviour (see Fig. 1, Appendix 1). Three types of behaviour variable were measured and two different locations were chosen for the study sites, a ‘high-density’ location and a ‘low-density’ location. At each location, the interaction of two pedestrians was recorded as either a ‘closed pass’, an ‘open pass’, or a ‘neutral pass’. The collision data was collected at one single 15 to 25 minute time period, in the evening of a single weekday, by different observers. Observers were stationed at either the ‘high-density’ or ‘low-density’ location and all the results were subsequently pooled according to the subjects’ gender. When passes were observed, the specific nature of the pass was recorded in the data collection table (see Fig. 1, Appendix 1). 3.0 Results A Chi-square test was performed on the data from ‘open’- and ‘closed pass’ observations. A significant association between, ‘closed pass’, ‘open pass’, and gender was observed (Chi-Squared =308.396, df=1) (see Fig. 2). A total of 40 instances of collision avoidance behaviour, out of ‘closed’- ‘open’- and ‘neutral passes’, across both genders was recorded. Fig. 2: The frequency of open and closed passes according to gender in the display of pedestrian collision avoidance behaviour 4.0 Discussion A total of 420 females displayed ‘open pass’ collision avoidance behaviour, whilst 741 female pedestrians displayed ‘closed pass’ behaviour. Conversely, approximately 840 males utilised ‘open pass’ movement to avoid collision, 278 males engaged in ‘closed pass’ movements to avoid collision. As shown in Fig. 2 (above), female pedestrians utilised the ‘closed pass’ most frequently whilst male pedestrians favoured ‘open pass’ motion. More than double the number of male subjects utilised the ‘open pass’, only one third more female subjects used a ‘closed pass’ compared to the ‘open pass’. Indicating gender is a less significant variable in females than males, in dictating the most likely type of pass used for collision avoidance. The results were furthermore significant (Chi-Squared =308.396, p=0.01), showing that there is a statistical significant association between gend er and collision avoidance displayed. Evening data collection was judged the best time to collect data as it coincided with a commuting time. One recording period was undertaken at each location, lasting between 15 and 25 minutes each. This time slot was considered long enough to provide a good representation of collisions, but was limited by the observers’ time limitations. The locations were decided as being suitable to represent ‘high’- and ‘low-density’ for collision recording, as the observers were familiar with these areas and with evening-typical pedestrian activity. Data was not collected on weekends due to time limitations. Although separate, gender demarcated readings were taken for both the high- and low-density locations. It was believed that pooling the data would be the most effective means of testing the hypothesis. To this end therefore, only the collision data that was recorded for the ‘open pass’ and ‘closed pass’ behaviours was utilised in the analysis. Data collected from subjects employing a ‘neutral pass’ technique was not considered necessary for the scope of this particular investigation. A difference in the collision avoidance behaviour according to gender was noted. Thus, the null hypothesis, H0, is to be rejected and the alternative hypothesis has been supported by the findings. The results also agree with Collett Marsh, (1981) and van Basten, et al., (2009), who found that when using a Pairwise comparison to study the avoidance behaviour of males and females in simulations and games, females would be more likely to collaborate for collision avoidance than males. As Fig. 2 (above), shows, females tended to use ‘open passes’ and males ‘closed passes’ as predominant collision avoidance behaviour. It is believed that women intend psychologically to protect their breasts, by using a ‘closed pass’ (Collett and Marsh, 1981). The finding that females exhibited self-protective conduct is supported by Kobayshi (1994), who noted that on trains, females would be more likely to stand facing the door and position their arms at a lower angle, whilst males would be more likely to face other passengers and the reverse being true. In a study by Jenni and Jenni (1976), American college students displayed a marked difference in the manner in which they held books; females more frequently carried books closer to the chest and males to the side. This posture-related behaviour may have relevance to support the findings in this study. The psychological reason that it is believed women wish to act with propriety (Collett Marsh, 1981) again is similar to the suggested reason for their posture on public trains. 4.1 Study strengths Limitations As the data collection for this experiment was carried out over the course of only one day, at both locations, future same-location data collection, over three consecutive days, which further encompassed the same allotted time periods throughout the day may improve experimental validity. Three days of data recording at one location (e.g. high density region), at the previously decided time slots, for thirty minutes each time, would be sufficient to effectively map collision avoidance behaviour. The same measurement criteria as used at the first location should be applied to all other study locations, to ensure reliability. An average of the number of days the study was conducted, according to each time interval would then also preferable to undertaken, thereby increasingly the overall reliability of the results. However, this would only give an indication of the type of collision avoidance displayed at those particular locations. Other independent variables may also affect the result s obtained, such as weather. However, as the study was a naturalistic study thereby providing a large amount of ecological validity, these concerns may be somewhat corrected for. 4.2 Future Research To further increase the reliability of the data collected for repeat experiments, different degrees of ‘high density’ and ‘low density’ locations could be visited, to provide an indication of whether collision avoidance behaviour would differ dramatically, (for example), between the most densely populated regions and second most densely populated regions visited.[2] The improved experimental design could include visiting five places across five days (and over three or more time periods throughout the day), according to â€Å"five-point scale† (e.g. 1=most densely populated, 5=least densely populated).[3] It may also be useful to include an observation on pedestrian age as collision avoidance behaviour may be age dependent. Future experiments may also consider same-direction pedestrian collision avoidance behaviour, to test whether the variable of direction affects avoidance behaviour. Instances of actual collisions could also be measured, to see whether, in these cases, avoidance behaviour was not displayed. Experimental subjectivity may have been a consideration in this study as more than one observer collected the tabulated data. This could readily be corrected for by having only one observer conduct all observations. 5.Conclusion The results from this experiment lent support to the fact that collision avoidance behaviour definitely has a gender-associated factor (Collett Marsh, 1981). Furthermore, in larger spaces, with fewer pedestrians the incidence of collision was found to be less likely, as it is believed that collisions were noted and corrected for much earlier. There are a number of topics within pedestrian collision behaviour that could be studied to provide further explanation in the area of gender associated collision avoidance behaviour. Studying same-direction collision behaviour, age-associated behaviour and recording behaviour at different time periods during the day may provide a deeper study of the topic as well as potentially useful ongoing research in the field. References Burgess, J.W. 1983. Interpersonal spacing behavior between surrounding nearest neighbors reflects both familiarity and environmental density. Ethology and socio ­biology. 4(1), pp.11 ­17. Collett, P Marsh, P. (1981). Patterns of Public Behavior: Collision Avoidance on a Pedestrian Crossing. In T. A. Sebeok J. Umiker-Sebeok (Eds.), Nonverbal Communication, Interaction and Gestures, pp. 199-217. The Hague: Mouton Press. Goffman, E. 1972. Relations in Public. Harmondsworth:Pelican. Jenni, D.A. Jenni, M.A. 1976. Carrying Behaviour in Humans: Analysis of Sex Differences. Science. 194, pp.859-860. Kobayashi, T. 1994. Sexual Differences in Posture-related Human Behaviour on Subway Trains, and Their Biological Function. Journal of Ethology. 12(2), pp. 121-130. Van Basten, B.J.H., Jansen, S.E.M. Karamouzas, I. 2009. Exploiting Motion Capture to Enhance Avoidance Behaviour in Games. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. 5884, pp. 29-40. Wolff, M. (1973). Notes on the behavior of pedestrians, in: People in places: the sociology of the familiar. Birenbaum, A.(ed), London, UK: Nelson Press, pp. 35 ­48. How to cite Collision-avoidance between male and female pedestrians, Essay examples

Phonology free essay sample

Phonology is the study of the speech sounds and sound of words in a language. It is also concerned with the way words are pronounced in a language. Each language has its own phonology. From a childs point of view, the business of phonology Is figuring out how to produce those sounds that are necessary for making meaning. Infants know the sound of language before their first word. The most amazing part Is babies learn from way before in utter (Giggles, 2005). Patricia Kohl talks about how Infants are sensitive to sounds that are not typically used In their language.It Is amazing how she conducted a study where she was able to show that Infants can dullnesss sounds from many languages. She described the act as, Infants taking statistics In speech. Another study she conducted as exposing children to television or auditory learning of language. She proved that Infants/ children need human contact In order to learn. We will write a custom essay sample on Phonology or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This Information shows the Importance of Interacting with children Is very Important. I use to think educational shows were a great part of a childs learning. Now I know that it does not compare to human interaction.I grew up in a bilingual household. My mother taught me Spanish first. She thought by teaching me Spanish first it would stick to me, because I was going to learn English at school. I was fluent in both languages as a child. As time passed my Spanish was not as great, because I was not speaking it often, not even at home. Although my parents always speak Spanish, I respond in English, or even Spangling. Patricia Kohl mentions, that once you get to your teenage years, everything goes downhill. Which I can agree. I still speak Spanish, but not as fluent.

Treatment Of Native Americans Essays - Cherokee Nation,

Treatment Of Native Americans After the American Revolution the new United States government hoped to maintain peace with the Indians on the frontier. But as settlers continued to migrate westward they made settlements on Indian lands and demanded and received protection by the Army. Tecumseh, a Shawnee chief, organized several tribes to oppose further ceding of Indian lands. But they were defeated in 1811 by Gen. William Henry Harrison at the battle of Tippecanoe. During the War of 1812 many of the Indians again sided with the British. Afterward, with the victorious United States secure in its borders, federal policy turned to one of removal of the Indians west of the Mississippi River--to the so-called Great American Desert, where, supposedly, no white man would ever want to live. To implement this policy, the Indian Removal Act was signed into law on May 28, 1830. It gave President Andrew Jackson, a dedicated foe of the Indians, the power to exchange land west of the Mississippi for the southeastern territory of the Five Civilized Tribes--the Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Seminoles. The removal policy led to a clash between Jackson and the United States Supreme Court, which had ruled in favor of the right of the Cherokees to retain their lands in Georgia. Jackson refused to enforce the Court's decision, and in 1838 and 1839 the Cherokees, like the other tribes before them, were forced westward to Indian Territory (later Oklahoma). Their bitter trek during the dead of winter has become known as the Trail of Tears. In 1832, Sauk and Fox Indians under Black Hawk in Wisconsin had been defeated after refusing to abandon their lands east of the Mississippi. In the 1830s and 1840s, Seminoles under Osceola unsuccessfully resisted removal from their homes in Florida. By the end of the 1840s, except for small segments of tribes who had fled to the wilderness, the Indian problem had ended in the East. 1835: Seminole Indian War. When white settlers tried to force the Seminole of the Florida Territory to relocate west of the Mississippi River, the tribe's warriors hid their families in the Everglades and launched a guerrilla war against U.S. forces under Gen. Thomas Jesup. Assisted by runaway slaves who had married into the tribe, the Seminoles fought determinedly until their chief Osceola was captured in 1837, after which their resistance gradually diminished. The war ended in 1842, and the Seminole agreed to move to lands west of the Mississippi soon thereafter. The Seminole War of 1835-42 cost the U.S. government more than 2,000 men and between 40 and 60 million dollars. TECUMSEH (1768? -1813). The most dramatic of the Indians' struggles to hold their lands against the white man was the one led by the great Shawnee chief Tecumseh. He was born on Mad River, near the present city of Springfield, Ohio, in about 1768. From his earliest childhood he saw suffering brought to his people by the whites. In 1808 Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa, a religious leader called the Prophet, established a village in northern Indiana. They persuaded the Indians there to avoid liquor, to cultivate their land, and to return to traditional Indian ways of life. The village came to be known as Prophet's Town. Meanwhile Tecumseh was forming a defensive confederacy of Indian tribes, traveling throughout the East and Midwest. Our fathers, he said to the Indians, from their tombs, reproach us as slaves and cowards. He won the allegiance of many tribes. At that time William Henry Harrison was governor of the Indiana Territory. He induced a number of individual tribes to give up great areas in the region that is now Indiana and Illinois. At a council in Vincennes in 1810, Tecumseh demanded that land be returned to the Indians. Since it belonged to all of them, he argued, individual chiefs did not have the right to barter it away. His demand was rejected. He then traveled to Canada to consult the British and afterward to the Southwest to enlist support of Indian tribes there. Governor Harrison undertook an expedition against Prophet's Town during Tecumseh's absence, in September 1811. On November 7, after a fierce battle, he destroyed the village. This defeat scattered the Indian

An Avian Flus Emergency Scenario in the State of Illinois

An Avian Flus Emergency Scenario in the State of Illinois Pandemics are a source of concern to any society in the contemporary world. They can either be man-made or natural. Regardless of their type, disasters pose a risk to human life and property. Avian flu is one such form of natural disaster that can wreck havoc in the society.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on An Avian Flu’s Emergency Scenario in the State of Illinois specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Also known as the avian influenza, the condition is brought about by naturally occurring viruses. The micro-organisms (Type A virus), are usually found in wild aquatic birds, domestic poultry, and other animal and bird species (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2014). In this paper, the author reviews two emergency scenarios involving avian flu outbreaks. In the first case, an occurrence of the pandemic in Chicago is analyzed. The parties in command of the response to the outbreak, as well as the coordination of activities of the various state and local agencies are some of the issues addressed in this scenario. In the second case, an outbreak in the larger state of Illinois is outlined. The author of this paper recommends several epidemic control steps to deal with the issue. The legal authorities involved in the response plan, as well as various factors that determine the success of the proposed plan, are some of the other areas analyzed in this section. An Emergency Scenario in Chicago, Illinois The Pandemic Under normal circumstances, avian flu does not affect humans. However, the virus can cause a serious pandemic if it finds its way into the human population. Such a case was reported in the 1918 ‘Spanish flu’ epidemic. Healthcare providers in Chicago have noted a growing number of individuals seeking health services as a result of symptoms associated with avian flu. After a careful follow-up, the authorities have determined that an influenza pandemic is de veloping. Taking Charge of the Incident The Illinois Department of Public Health would command the avian flu response initiative. The agency is tasked with the responsibility of addressing health issues in the state.Advertising Looking for term paper on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) would be responsible for the coordination and the overall federal response to the avian flu (Homeland Security Council [HSC], 2007). The commanding status of DHS is strengthened through the appointment of pre-designated Principal Federal Officials (PFO), as well as regional PFOs, responsible for the coordination of influenza responses. Coordinating Resources and Working Together The management of the federal, state, and local resources determines the effectiveness of the response mechanism. The U.S. Government provides state and local authorities with guidance on the best pharm aceutical and non-pharmaceutical interventions to mitigate the impacts of the pandemic. The federal and state authorities are expected come up with the best interventional measures to deal with the emergency. On their part, the local authorities play the role of implementing these proposals at the community level. The major role of the federal authorities is to fund the program (HSC, 2007). The state and local agencies ensure that the hospitals and the emergency departments have the capacity to handle the large number of patients affected by the condition. There are other issues that the two authorities need to deal with. For example, they need to provide healthcare workers with the necessary protective gear. They should also provide them with the information needed to handle the situation, together with the necessary materials and infrastructure (HSC, 2007). Given this scenario, the state and local authorities would be liable if anything happens to the personnel implementing the re lief programs. Laws, Rules, and Regulations Important for the Response The Emergency Federal Law Enforcement Assistance would be essential in handling the pandemic. The regulation falls under the Justice Assistance Act of 1984 (HSC, 2007). It calls for maximum assistance from the U.S. Government. Other rules and regulations would be specific to the non-pharmaceutical measures of dealing with the pandemic. Addressing a Localized Cluster of Phase 5 Pandemic Recommended Epidemic Control Steps There are several control measures that can be put in place to deal with an outbreak that is restricted to a Chicago cluster. The primary control strategies for addressing the avian flu pandemic include prophylaxis among the individuals exposed to the virus. The strategy can be achieved through the use of antiviral medications, vaccinations, and the adoption of infection control and social distancing measures (Tyshenko, 2007).Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on An Avian Flu’s Emergency Scenario in the State of Illinois specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It is not possible to develop a matching vaccine within a short duration to respond to the scenario. As such, social distancing and infection control measures are more appropriate. Voluntary home quarantines, dismissal of students from schools, isolated treatment for the infected, and other non-pharmaceutical interventions are recommended (Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2007). Invoking Legal Authorities to Respond to the Emergency Such legal authorities as the Public Health Service Act (42 U.S. Code 264), which falls under section 361, may be evoked to help in dealing with the situation. Applying the laws would facilitate isolation and quarantine efforts by the federal government (CDC, 2014). The act supports the enforcement of measures necessary for prevention of entry and spread of communicable di seases in the country. The federal government, through the various federal agencies, prepares and encourages communities, organizations, and businesses to deal with such outbreaks. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention might be forced to exercise its authority under section 42 Code of Federal Regulations (CDC, 2014). The code authorizes the agency to detain, medically examine, and release individuals arriving in the U.S. The persons who are taken through these procedures are those suspected of carrying infections. In most cases, travelers from regions hit by the avian influenza are more likely to carry the virus and infect people in other regions (CDC, 2014). Factors Affecting the Success of the Proposed Plan The success of the avian flu response plan would depend on various factors. One of them is the effective coordination of resources between the federal, state, and local authorities. In addition, enhancing the accountability of the various authorities in carrying out th eir mandate would facilitate effectiveness in the response initiative. Failure to synchronizing the activities of the assisting personnel would jeopardize the entire process. Organization is very important, regardless of the level of expertise among the personnel or the complexity of the equipment used.Advertising Looking for term paper on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The federal government would be expected to provide the necessary support to the individuals and agencies involved in responding to the emergency. For example, the state’s Department of Public Health should effectively manage, supervise, and control the activities of all the stakeholders involved in the initiative. The major responsibility of local authorities would be to enhance cooperation from members of the public. Possibilities of Effectively Controlling the Outbreak Effectual coordination and definition of duties, as indicated above, would help to control the epidemic. Currently, the avian flu pandemic is at phase 5. Under such conditions, the proposed plan is likely to contain the epidemic, making sure that it does not deteriorate to phase 6. The Adequacy of the Government’s Plan The national government’s strategy to deal with the outbreak of, together with the efforts made by the Illinois’ Emergency Management Agency, appears adequate enough to de al with the problem. The authorities acknowledge the need for non-pharmaceutical and social distancing measures as immediate responses. For this reason, the efforts seem sufficient enough. References Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014). Seasonal influenza (flu): Information on avian influenza. Web. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2007). Interim pre-pandemic planning guidance: Community strategy for pandemic influenza mitigation in the United States- Early, targeted, layered use of non-pharmaceutical interventions. Web. Homeland Security Council. (2007). National strategy for pandemic influenza: Implementation plan one year summary. Web. Tyshenko, M. (2007). Management of natural and bioterrorism induced pandemics. Bioethics, 21(7), 364-369.

ICT and Internet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

ICT and Internet - Essay Example Meeting with friends and social contacts have been greatly intensified through Internet by using E-mail, Internet chat sessions and videophones (Livingstone S, 2002). Edutainment is delivering education and entertainment to children at their doorsteps. While this may be the scenario in the urban elite society, the rural environment is changing in a different way. The rural citizen is also getting well connected in the networked society and a new concept of urban society is taking shape. Earlier, a citizen in the distant area has to travel to pay taxes, bills etc to the government or to receive revenue documents, birth certificate and the like (James Curran, 2005). Internet Protocol (IP) has changed the computer technology, portals are created abiding Internet protocols. Programming has reached a sophisticated stage where programming languages like Java, PHP, Microsoft products like Asp.net, Visual Studio, MS Office were being used to develop web sites and portals that have become an interface between service providers and end users. Travelling portals offer different discounts for different destinations and allow customers to send their feed back via email (Raab, S., Chandra, W, 2005). Community sites Orkut, Facebook and blog sites like Blogspot helped the users not only to be in touch with each but also express their views on different subjects (James Slevin, 1999).

A commercial office environment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

A commercial office environment - Essay Example Linux runs on a variety of hardware platforms including Sun, Intel and digital. To meet its role and stand out from similar operating systems, Linux has been included with several edge features which are constantly improved. This paper is out to present an overview of a commercial office environment in which Linux is applicable, mention the relevant factors for the Linux to be deployed in such an environment and present the successes associated with this Linux deployment (Siever and Robbins, 2005). Considering the way a commercial office environment is a dynamic network that entails many key requirements such as scalability, flexibility, extensibility and adaptability, Linux is suitable in such a place as it meets all the above requirements. A commercial office is a business operation thus any equipment or facility used has to be cost effective. This is where Linux beats most of Operating Systems as it is free thus economical to any office environment. Such an environment operates best with Java development as the office activities call for the need to access network resources in a way that cuts a cross platforms allowing for addition applications into the network is the shortest time possible. Linux is the best when it comes to such adjustments which are common in offices. Now that the office environment is ever changing, workers need to be in a position to log in from different locations and stations and at the same time consistently accesses of the files shared. This is a c ommon practice in commercial office environments and Linux makes it as easy and convenient as possible. This will allow the workers work in an environment that is familiar thus increasing their productivity (Rubin and Corbet, 2005). Traditionally, most if not all the machines in commercial offices were operated with Windows NT, with their software servers being Solaris. Such a set up called for the need of additional

No title page not yet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

No title page not yet - Essay Example This advertisement makes attempts to persuade the viewer through its tone and inclusion of statistics. This advertisement is effective because of the tone displayed. The male narrator speaks with a positive and upbeat tone of voice, creating the illusion that he would be interested in a woman who uses this product. From his voice, it is likely that he is in his mid to late 20’s and is a man that every young woman aspires for. When introducing the product, the narrator uses such words as â€Å"ultra† and â€Å"formula.† The use of these words is designed to appeal to up-market women who have an education and perhaps earn significantly more than the average woman. By adding the word â€Å"formula† in there, it seems as thought the company has tested the product multiple times before settling on the one eventually introduced to the market. Words like â€Å"ultra† attempt to accentuate the word â€Å"lengthening,† which is the main purpose of the whole advertisement. Another reason why this advertisement is so convincing is through its use of statistics. The narrator claims that â€Å"lashes look up to 80% longer.† This would be appealing for any woman who felt that their lashes were too short. Also, included along the bottom of the screen is a claim that 93% of women agree that this product works. This once again tries to convey a message to the viewer that the product is trustworthy because it is accepted among everyday regular women. The narrator finally mentions that â€Å"9 out of 10 agree that lashes look remarkably long† through the use of this product. While this may seem convincing to a viewer who does not know the background of these claims, these figures needs more justification. For instance, of the 93% of women who agree that this product is beneficial, who were the 41 women surveyed? Are they qualified to give an opinion on the topic? Of course, in a 30-second advertisement it is impossible to accurately verify

An analysis of the three sociological perspectives

An analysis of the three sociological perspectives This paper discusses three approaches that can be taken when studying Sociology. There are many subjects to be studied and discussed in the field of Sociology, and the approach chosen to study a particular subject is called a perspective. There are three different perspectives, and they are functionalist, conflict, and interactionist perspectives. This paper compares and contrasts these different perspectives with one another. Through Analysis, A Compare and Contrast Of the Three Sociological Perspectives: Functionalist, Conflict, and Interactionist When studying in the field of Sociology everyone is going to approach topics in a different manner. No two people are going to have the exact same view on a particular subject. There are however, three major categories in which people might choose to approach topics. The approaches are know as sociological perspectives and are the functionalist, conflict, and interactionist perspectives. These perspectives name different ways in which different people choose to analyze a subject, and how they look at a society as a whole. The following paragraphs compare and contrast the three, and identify major characteristics of each. The functionalist perspective is a sociological approach which emphasizes the way that parts of a society are structure to maintain its stability,(Schaefer Lamm, 1998). This perspective looks at a society in a positive manner and sees it as stable, with all the parts working together. Under the functionalist view every social aspect of a society contributes to the societys survival, and if not, the aspect is not passed to the next generation. There are two people who where mainly involved in the development of the functionalist perspective, they are Emile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons. Durkheim contributed to the functionalist perspective when she was studying religion, and how it was responsible for people feeling solidarity and unity in groups. Parsons was a sociologist from Harvard University who was greatly influenced by Durkheim. In return, he influenced Sociology by dominating the field, with his functionalist views, for four decades (Schaefer Lamm, 1998). When approaching a subject with the functionalist perspective, manifest and latent functions as well as dysfunctions are looked at and studied. A manifest function of an institution is one that is stated and expected. A latent function is one that is unexpected or can show a hidden purpose of an institution, and a dysfunction is a component of a society that can cause instability (Rothman, 1998). These functions and dysfunctions are use in analyzing a society. Functionalist perspective is an approach to studying a society on the macrosociological level. This means that a society is studied on a large scale as a whole. The view of the individual in a functionalist perspective is that people are socially molded, not forced, to perform societal functions. Order in a society, as viewed by a functionalist, is maintained when members of a society cooperated with one another. Functionalists view social change as being predictable and positive. The main idea of functionalist perspective is that of stability (Schaefer Lamm, 1998). The conflict perspective is a sociological approach which assumes that social behavior is best understood in terms of conflict or tension between different groups, (Schaefer Lamm, 1998). In contrast to the functionalist view of stability, conflict sociologist see a society as being in constant struggle. The idea of conflict is not necessarily violent; it could just refer to disagreements that are worked out through a mediator (Platt, 1999). The two main contributors to the formation of the conflict perspective are Karl Marx and W. E. B. Du Bois. Karl Marx explained that conflicts between classes of society are inevitable, since workers will always be exploited as a result of capitalism. It is through the expansion of Marxs work that sociologist now apply conflict theory to all aspects of society. Even though there are parallels between Marxist theories and conflict perspective they are not the same. An important aspect of conflict perspective is that it encourages sociologists to look at a society through the eyes of those in the population who does not influence decision making. Du Bois contributed to the conflict perspective by studying society in reference to blacks and their struggles within society (Schaefer Lamm, 1998). The conflict perspective sees society as being full of tension and struggle between groups. It also, like functionalist, analyzes society on the macrosociological level. As for the individual, they are perceived as being shaped by power and authority. Social order is viewed as being maintained not through cooperation, but through force. And social change is not predictable, but is constantly taking place. The conflict perspectives main idea is that there are competing interests between groups and social inequality exists, therefore there is always conflict of some kind. The interactionist perspective is a sociological approach which generalizes about fundamental or everyday forms of social interaction, (Schaefer Lamm, 1998). Interactionist perspective focuses on the way that small groups act, in order to understand society as a whole. Interactionists study people in their everyday behavior and how they react to their surroundings. Such surroundings may include material things, actions, other people, and symbols. George Herbert Mead is most often credited with founding the interactionist perspective, but Charles Horton Cooley also shared Meads views. Mead was a professor at the University of Chicago, and he focused on the analysis of one-to-one situations and other small groups. He paid particular attention to body language such as a frown or nod, and he also asked the questions of how other group members effected these gestures. His students passed down his views after his death, as a result of hearing his lectures (Schaefer Lamm, 1998). The interactionist view of society is that we influence each others everyday social interactions. In contrast to functionalist and conflict perspectives, the interactionist perspective studies society on a microsociological level. In other words they study on a small scale in order to understand the large scale. Interactionists believe that an individual creates their own social world through his or her interactions, and it is thought that social order is maintained when people share their understanding of everyday behavior. Interactionists say that social change occurs when the positions and communication with one another change. The main idea of an interactionist sociologist is to study nonverbal communication and small groups paying particular attentions to objects and symbols (Schaefer Lamm, 1998). As one can tell from reading these three approaches are very different in the way in which they study sociological issues. They all strive to give meaning to why people do what they do, and neither is better than the other, they just go about reaching the same goal in a different way. Bibliography:

Harrison Bergeron by Kurt Vonnegut Essay -- Harrison Bergeron Essays

"Harrison Bergeron" by Kurt Vonnegut In "Harrison Bergeron" Kurt Vonnegut depicts a society in which everyone is mentally, physically, and socially equal. Throughout the history of our country, Americans have sought racial, gender, and socio-economic equality. On paper such a society seems ideal. Through the story one might infer that Vonnegut views the concept of total equality as ludicrous. Equality can be interpreted many ways. One point of view is the American belief that everybody should be treated equally and another view is the one represented in the story that everybody is equal. I completely agree with Mr. Vonnegut's view of the perfect society as being absurd. Having everybody equal looks fantastic in planning but it would never work out that way. If the government was allowed to impose handicaps on the naturally gifted, how could civilization ever make advancements? The great thinkers would not be able to envision new ideas because of the mental handicap radios they had to wear in their ears. Technology would come to a stand still with the gifted not being able to finish a complete thought because of the sharp sounds produced by the mental handicaps. With the handicaps imposed there would not the breakthroughs that are needed to improve the population's way of life. Suppose someone did not have the ability to invent the automobile. It would be difficult to commute to school or work. Imagine if you had to walk to work every day no matter ho...

Ehe situation at the airport Essay

The heart rate increases the second you entry the terminal. There is a continuous sound of cheerful chatter, luggage wheels gently rolling across the cobalt blue floor, and mobile phones ringing. There are different emotions on everyone as you walk past, some people are depressed, excited or stressed out. The cue is long because it’s the early hours in the afternoon; the security grads are comfortably waiting for the passengers to place their properties in the security check tray. Each security uniforms display a shining gold badge that catches the eye; it’s so bright you have to wear sun glasses to look at the badge. The security grads are standing straight and are eager and delighted to help the next traveller. A mother and her child are joyfully placing their properties in the security check tray. The little boy was obviously dressed to see someone special; wearing a dark blue jacket, a green and grey striped shirt underneath, his trousers are clean but you can recognize they have been worn a couple of times and he has spent much time on his knees probably playing with his bright yellow racing car he is now happily placing in the tray which is now passing through the security check. He jumps eagerly as the scanner beeps, a sigh of relief as the boy got his yellow car back. As the time gets closer for takeoff, the more pressure; you just can wait to get on the plane but the time is dragging is like watching a snail run a marathon. I hear two business men behind me chatting about the weather in New York and the possibility of a snow. The disturbance of an airplane at a takeoff and the smell of an aircraft fuel. Young children listening to music on their mp3 player some even singing it out loud and playing video games as they wait for their gate to open. Voice on the public address announcing that flight 1907 is now boarding at gate A28. A Multiple of Billboards adverting different type of things the most eye catching one is the toothpaste billboard, because the man is beating of the billboard and the billboard is half done. It makes it clear that Formula tooth care gives you really strong teeth. Several people where admiring the art work as they took pictures of the billboard.

Marrige and Divorce Essays

Marrige and Divorce Essays Marrige and Divorce Essay Marrige and Divorce Essay Essay Topic: Cry the Beloved Country Discipline and Punish the Birth Of the Prison This research paper is assigned to us in â€Å"Introduction to Social Science† course. Here students have to prepare a term paper basing on the titles given to them so that students can learn to conduct any research study in future for their organizational purpose or own business purpose. The topic of our study is â€Å"Marriage and Divorce†. In this term paper we have gone through different articles, journals and research papers. 1. 2 Objectives of the Study The principle objective of the study is to know the effect of divorce in the children. The specific objectives of the study are as follows: 1. To assess of marriage in our society. 2. Effect of marriage in the society. 3. To investigate divorce cases to find out the reason behind this. 4. Effect of marriage in the children. 1. 3 Research Strategy Method 1. 3. 1Techniques to be used to collect data Questionnaire: Questionnaire will be use to developed case studies. Interview: Divorce men and women will be approached to collect interview through structured interview telephone, fax, e-mail and physical interview will be conducted. Observations: Surveyor while taking interview will use his own observation to collect information. Secondary information: Secondary information should be collected by internet, newspapers, journals and other relevant documents. 1. 3. 2 Sampling design For this research topic, Data required are primary and secondary. Target people are the divorce men, wome n and their children.. . 4 Data collection Techniques and Tools |Data collection Techniques |Data Collection Tools | |Observation |Check list, | |Interviewing |Compilation Form, | |Administering written |Questionnaire, | |Questionnaires |Discussion Guides. | | | 1. 5 Limitations To complete the study we have faced some problems, which can be termed as the limitations of the study. The problems were as follows: Less Secondary Information Lack of time 2. 1. 1 Marriage Marriage is a relationship and bond, most commonly between a man and a woman, that plays a key role in the definition of many families. Precise definitions vary historically and between and within cultures, but it has been an important concept as a socially sanctioned bond in a sexual relationship. Globally, societies that sanction polygamy as a form of marriage are far less common than those that do not and monogamy is overwhelmingly most widely practiced, followed distantly by polygyny, which is found primarily in tribal cultures, and with other forms being extremely rare. Since the latter decades of the 20th century many of societys assumptions about the nature and purpose of marriage and family have been challenged, in particular by homosexual advocacy groups, who demand changing the definition of marriage as a heterosexual union. In modern times, the term marriage is generally reserved for a state sanctioned union. The phrase legally married can be used to emphasize this point. 2. 1. 2 Types of marriage: The type and functions of marriage vary from culture to culture. In the United States, Europe, and China in the early 21st century, legally sanctioned marriages are monogamous (although some pockets of society still sanction polygamy socially, if not legally) and divorce is relatively simple and socially sanctioned. In the West, the prevailing view toward marriage today is that it is based on emotional attachment between the partners and entered into voluntarily. In the Islamic world, marriage is sanctioned between a man and a woman, however there are verses in chapter 4 of the Quran which state that in certain conditions a man is allowed up to four wives. In Imperial China, formal marriage was sanctioned only between a man and a woman, although a man could take several concubines and the children from the union were considered legitimate. Some societies permitted polygamy, in which a man could have multiple wives; even in such societies however, most men have only one. In such societies, having multiple wives is generally considered a sign of wealth and power. The status of multiple wives has varied from one society to another. In Islamic societies, the different wives were considered equal while in Imperial China, one woman was considered the primary wife while the other women were considered concubines. Among the upper classes, the primary wife was an arranged marriage with an elaborate formal ceremony while the concubines were taken on later with minimal ceremony. There are also many monogamous societies, where a marriage consists of only two people, a very few polyandrous, where a woman could have multiple husbands. Societies which permit group marriage are extremely rare, but have existed in utopian societies such as the Oneida Community. 2. 1. 3 Marriage and religion: Many religions have extensive teachings regarding marriage. Most Christian churches give some form of blessing to a marriage; the wedding ceremony typically includes some sort of pledge by the community to support the couples relationship. In the Eastern Orthodox church, it is one of the Mysteries, and is seen as an ordination and a martyrdom. In marriage, Christians see a picture of the relationship between Jesus and the Church. In Judaism, marriage is viewed as a coming together of two families, therefore prolonging the religion and cultural heritage of the Jewish people. Islam also recommends marriage highly; among other things, it helps in the pursuit of spiritual perfection. Hinduism sees marriage as a sacred duty that entails both religious and social obligations. By contrast, Buddhism does not encourage or discourage marriage, although it does teach how one might live a happily married life. Its also worth noting that different religions have different beliefs as regards the breakup of marriage. For example, the Roman Catholic Church does not permit divorce, because in its eyes, a marriage is forged by God. The Church states that what God joins together, humans cannot sunder. As a result, people who get a civil divorce are still considered married in the eyes of the Catholic Church, which does not allow them to remarry, even if they are allowed a civil marriage. In some special cases, however, Catholics can be permitted an annulment. With a nullity, religions and the state often apply different rules, meaning that a couple, for example, could receive a divorce from the state and not have their marriage annulled by the Catholic Church because the state disagrees with the church over whether an annulment could be granted in a particular case. This produces the phenomenon of Catholics getting Church annulments simultaneously with state divorces, allowing the ex-partners to marry other people in the eyes of both the Church and the State. Islam does allow divorce; however, there is a verse stated in the Quran describing divorce as the least desirable act allowed between people. The general rule is for a man to allow his wife to stay until the end of her menstrual period or for 3 months if she so wishes after the divorce. During this period they would be divorced in that they would simply be living under the same roof but not functioning as man and wife. The Quran scholars suggest that the main point is to prevent any decisions by the woman from being affected by hormonal fluctuations as well as to allow any heated arguments or differences to be resolved in a civil manner before the marriage is completely terminated. However, there is no obligation on the woman to stay, if she so wishes she may leave. The man is also obligated to give his wife a gift or monetary sum equivalent to at least half her mahr (gift or monetary sum which is given to the wife at the commencement of the marriage). Specific conditions as to how a divorce is conducted also apply if a woman is pregnant, or has given birth just prior to the divorce. 2. 1. 4 Marriage and economics: The economics of marriage have changed over time. Historically, in many cultures the family of the bride had to provide a dowry to pay a man for marrying their daughter. In other cultures, the family of the groom had to pay a bride price to the brides family for the right to marry the daughter. In some cultures, dowries and bride prices are still demanded today. In both cases, the financial transaction takes place between the groom (or his family) and the brides family; the bride has no part in the transaction and often no choice in whether to participate in the marriage. In many modern legal systems, two people who marry have the choice between keeping their property separate or combining their property. In the latter case, called community property, when the marriage ends by divorce each owns half; if one partner dies the surviving partner owns half and for the other half inheritance rules apply. . 2. 1 Divorce Divorce or dissolution of marriage is the ending of a marriage, which can be contrasted with an annulment which is a declaration that a marriage is void, though the effects of marriage may be recognized in such unions, such as spousal support, child custody and distribution of property. 2. 2. 2 Causes of divorce The main causes in are: Extra-marital affairs – Family strains Emotional/physical abuse Mid-life crisis Add ictions, e. g. alcoholism and gambling Workaholism Regarding extra-marital affairs, men engaged in them in 75% (55%) of cases; women in 25% (45%). In cases of family strain, it was womens families in 78% of cases who were the cause, compared to 22% of mens. Emotional/physical abuse was more evenly split with women affected in 60% and men in 40% of cases. In 70% of workaholism-related divorces it was men who were the cause, and 30% women. 2. 2. 3 Social and family issues There are arguments concerning the harmful effects of divorce on women, men, and children in the family. These may be summarised as follows: Women are generally the financial victims of divorce due to the lack of equal pay for equal work in many countries and the fact that many women give up employment after marriage to bring up children. They are often left with the burden of looking after the children after the divorce while having to find work in low-paid jobs. Child support collection is a major problem as many fathers do not accept that they have an obligation towards their children. Many national and local governments provide some kind of welfare system for divorced mothers and their children. See single mother for details. Men are generally the financial victims of divorce due to court-ordered alimony and child support which women often are not required to pay, and the fact that many men are entirely denied custody of their own children. Some men are left with the burden of never seeing their children, which is a major problem as many mothers may relocate the children, not accepting that they have an obligation to provide a stable and supportive family with both parents involved. Although women are less likely to pay child-support, they re more likely to neglect support payments when they are required. Unfortunately, the aspect of family stability is one argument stated against same-sex marriage, since court orders against men and child neglect by women are no longer defensible one-way legal benefits. Recognition of the problems faced by fathers and other relatives is given by self-help groups such as Families Need Fathers. 2. 2. 4 Legal aspects of divorce Muslim societie s No-fault divorce is allowed in Islam, though Islam discourages divorce in any case. No-fault divorce can be obtained by either partner. If the man seeks divorce he has to pay a dowry and cover the expenses of his ex-wife for a period called iddah (four months 10 days) following divorce, and in the case of the woman feeding his child he has to pay the expenses of his ex-wife for the period she feeds child until the child is two years old (in addition to expenses for child). If it is the wife who seeks divorce, she must go to a court. The court will first try to make a settlement. If a settlement cant be reached, the court can grant a divorce. If a woman who seeks divorce on the (proven) grounds of ill treatment, inability to sustain her financially or sexual impotence on the part of the husband, the husband has to pay a dowry; otherwise, she gets nothing. 2. 2. 5 LAW Existing Laws that relate to women and children: The Penal Code 1860: Provides that children under 12 are not culpable for any offence and are unable to give their consent to any transaction. It was made an offence to kidnap a male under 14 and a female under 16 years who are in lawful guardianship. It was made an offence to kidnap a child under 10 years of age. The Divorce Act 1869: Asserts the right of the court to assess the appropriate maintenance, custody and education of the children in separation cases. The Contract Act 1872: Legislates that a contract by a minor is absolutely void. A contract of sale made with the guardian of a minor may be binding only if it were made either for legal necessity or for the benefit of the estate. The Guardians and Wards Act 1890: Empowers the court to appoint a guardian of a minors person and/or property. No guardian may be appointed that is against the will of the minor. The Code of Criminal Procedures 1898: Any person having sufficient means yet neglecting or refusing to maintain his wife and legitimate children can be ordered to provide a monthly allowance for his dependents. The court obtained empowerment to release certain convicted first offenders less than 21 years of age on probation of good conduct instead of sentencing them to imprisonment. The Mines Act 1923: Prohibits employment of a child under 15 years of age to work in a mine and regulates the employment of those between 15 and 17 years of age. The Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929: Provides punishment for a male adult marrying a child below 16 years of age. It also prescribes punishment for parents and guardians who play a part in child marriages. The Suppression of Immoral Traffic Act 1933: Provides for the punishment of forcing a girl under 18 years into prostitution. Abatement by one having custody or charge of the girl is also a crime. The Children (Pledging of Labor) Act 1933: It was made an offence to pledge a child into labor or employ a child whose labor has been pledged. The Employment of Children Act 1938: Regulates the employment of children in specified industries and occupations and provides for punishment of the employer contravening the provisions of the Act The Maternity Benefit Act 1939: Regulates the employment of women for certain periods before and after childbirth and provides for the payment of maternity benefit to them by the employer. The Maternity Benefit (Tea Estate) Act 1950: Prohibits the employment of women in tea gardens or processing factories for a certain period before and after childbirth with payment of maternity benefits for the period. The Minimum Wages Ordinance 1961: Set a minimum rate for juvenile (under 18) workers and provides for punishment and contravention. The 1965 Factorys Act obligated the management to provide child care if the factory employs more than fifty women. Practices to the contrary are punishable by law. (Act No-iv, 1965) The Shops and Establishment act 1965: Prohibits the employment of children under 12 years in shops and commercial establishments. It further regulates the hours of work for those under 18 years of age. The Childrens Act 1974: Provides for the custody, protection and treatment of children and the punishment of young offenders by juvenile courts. It also deals with care and protection of destitute and neglected children. It provides, among other safeguards, for the punishment of special offences such as cruelty to children, employment of children for begging and exploitation of child employees. 1992, the Government of Bangladesh made the Dhaka Declaration for the promotion and protection of breast-feeding practice. In 1994, the Government of Bangladesh agreed to support ecvironment includes provision of child care and creche facilities at the work place. In addition to these formal laws, there are a number of personal and religious laws, which mainly relate to social customs such as marriage, divorce, guardianship, adoption and inheritance, according to religious prescriptions. 2. 2. 6 Three Major Divorce Parenting Mistakes and Learn How to Avoid Them Stop letting your divorce ruin your childrens life. 3 major divorce parenting mistakes surely lead to unhappy, unhealthy and unsuccessful children. Know and learn to deal with these mistakes for your children seek. 1. Failure To Act According To Childs Best Interest. If you are divorced or in the process of getting a divorce, you may be concerned about the effects it may have on your child or children. You certainly know how important it is to make decisions based on your childrens best interest. But between parents, the worst arguments can happen over what exactly these interests are. This is because the phrase best interest means different things to different people. Experts and researchers do agree on two very basic factors that have significant impact on childrens well being. These two factors can be said to be the foundation for a childs true best interest: Children benefit from keeping the familial ties in their life that were meaningful and important to them prior to the divorce. Such familial ties may not be limited to parents but may also include extended family, such as grandparents. Children benefit to the greatest when the in-between parent relationships is generally supportive and cooperative whether they are married or divorced. These two factors determine whether divorced children are damage or not damage by divorce. . Failure To Let Go The Hurts Of Ones Divorce. Let go of grudges you may hold against your former spouse. Holding onto feelings of anger will not change your situation and will probably consume a great deal of your energy energy you need to devote to creating a positive environment for your child. If you dwell on your disappointment and dislike with your former spouse chances are your child will sense your feelings and suffer i n some way from your negative attitude. Let go and forgive. 3. Failure To Win The Parenting Cooperation Of Your Ex After divorce, most parents would like to have a smooth and civil relationship with their ex but only a few end-up the way they wanted. Often just by talking to their former spouse brings them somewhere between annoyed and enraged. If divorced parents can put aside their personal feelings before the welfare of their children and choose to interact with one another in a respectful and dignified way, their children will benefit. Learn to win the parenting cooperation of your ex. Remember whatever lead you to where you are today, you are responsible for another life the innocent life of a child, who didnt ask to be born. Your child is not responsible for the experiences or events that made you divorced. Your child is completely dependent upon you through no choice of their own. Dont let them down. They are powerless and vulnerable to the possibly less-than-ideal consequences they face as a child of divorced parent. Your role and influence in their life is paramount to their chances of becoming a happy, healthy and successful adult. They need you more than their words will ever tell. Sure, you can have healthy, happy and successful children even if youre divorced. Do act according to childs best interest, let go and forgive, and win the parenting cooperation of your ex. Remember, how bad and well children go through the divorce depends on how parents handle the situation. Never let your divorce ruin your childrens life. 2. 2. 7 DIVORCE IN GENERAL AND WITH RESPECT TO ISLAM In no age other than ours has so much attention been paid to the danger of the disintegration of the family and its harmful consequences, and again, in no age other than ours has man been faced with the real danger of such disintegration. The growth of divorce in modern life In the past much attention was not paid to the problem of divorce, its causes and its harmful effects, nor were any measures devised to prevent its incidence, yet the cases of divorce were few and far between. There is no doubt that the difference between the past and the present is due to the fact that now the causes, which lead to divorce, have increased. The social life has taken such a turn that now there are more chances of the disruption of the family bond, and that is why the efforts of the intellectuals and the public-spirited people have, so far, borne no fruit. Regrettably, the future bodes more danger. The American magazine, ‘Newsweek’ in an interesting article under the heading, ‘Divorce in America’, writes that it is easier in America, to get a divorce than to get a taxi. ‘Newsweek’ further writes that two proverbs about divorce are better known among the American people than any other. One is that â€Å"the hardest conciliation between husband and wife is better than divorce†. It is 400 years old. The other which represents a diametrically opposite view has gained currency during the second-half of the 20th century. It says that â€Å"the second love is more pleasant than the first†. The article shows that the second proverb is more operative in America. The illusion of divorce attracts to itself, not only the newly-wed, but even their mothers, and the couple who were married a long time ago. Since the Second World War onward, on an average, the number of cases of divorce has not been less than 400,000 per annum. Out of the dissolved marriages, 40% had remained intact for 10 years or more and 13% for more than 20 years. The average age of two million women divorces was 45 years. Some 62% of them had children under 18 at the time of the dissolution of their marriages. These women, in fact form a special generation. Though the American woman feels quite free after divorce, yet the divorced, whether young or the middle- aged, are not happy. Their unhappiness can be gauged from the ever-increasing number of women who call on the psychiatrists or have recourse to alcoholism. Out of every four women divorcees, one is an alcoholic. The average cases of suicide among these women are three times more than among women having husbands. In short as soon as a woman comes victorious out of a divorce court she realises that life after divorce is not a bed of roses. The world can hardly have a good opinion of a woman who issolves her marriage, the strongest form of human relationship. Society may respect such a woman and even envy her, but cannot look upon her as a person who entered the life of another and brought about happiness. In the course of this article in Newsweek the question has been raised whether the ever-growing cases of divorce are mostly due to temperamental incompatibility between husband and wife, or some other causes. The writer of the article says that even if incompatibility is accepted to be the cause of separation among the newly-wed couples, how can one explain the cases of those who had been leading a married life for a long time. Taking into consideration the facilities which the American law provides in connection with divorce it may be said that incompatibility is not the reason of separation in the case of a marriage which has lasted out for 10 or 20 years. In the age of contraceptive pills, sexual revolution and improvement in their legal status, many women have come to believe that delight and pleasure are preferable to the stability of married life. You often see that a husband and a wife live together for years, have children, share each others’ joy and grief and then suddenly the wife seeks a divorce, without any palpable change having taken place in the material or conventional position of the husband. The reason is that, till yesterday, the woman was willing to bear the boredom of life, but today she is not inclined to do so. The increase in the cases of divorce is not confined to America. Wherever the modern Western ways have permeated to a considerable degree, the figures of divorce have gone up. Even in the East, divorce is far more common in the modernized big cities than in the small towns and the countryside. A prominent French daily writes that in more than 200 restaurants and cabaret houses in California waitresses work in topless outfits. The topless swimming costume has been recognised as the working-dress in San Francisco and Los Angeles. In the city of New York there are many cinema halls which show only sexy films and the nude pictures of women can be seen displayed in front of their entrances. The names of sexy films are of this kind: â€Å"The men who swap their wives†, â€Å"The girls who are immoral†, ‘The dress which does not hide anything†. ~ the libraries there are very few fiction books which do not bear a nude photo of a woman on their covers. Even the classical books are no exception. Such titles as â€Å"Sexual Behaviour of American Husbands†, â€Å"Sexual Behaviour of a Man of the West†, ‘ Sexual Behaviour of Young Men Below 20†, â€Å"New Sexual Methods Based on the Latest Information†, are very common. The writer of the article in the French daily asks with surprise and apprehension: â€Å"Whither America? † In such an atmosphere, if the American woman has lost her balance and gives preference to pleasure-seeking over faithfulness to her husband and family she is not to blame. It is the social atmosphere which has struck at the very root of the sacred family system. It is surprising that the leaders of our age give, on the one hand, an impetus to the causes of divorce and the disintegration of family life and, on the other, raise a hue and cry that the rate of divorce has gone up so high. This is just like putting a man to sweep a chimney and then asking him not to stain his clothes. 2. 2. 8 Five theories Now let us see whether, in principle, divorce is good or bad. The question is whether it is good to keep the door to divorce wide open, even at the risk of the disintegration of family life? If it is good, there is no harm if the rate of divorce goes up. In case, however it is not advisable, should a total ban be imposed on divorce, and conjugal union be made eternal? The third alternative is that divorce should not be banned legally, for in certain circumstances it is unavoidable, but at the same time society should take every possible action to do away with the causes of friction and separation between the husbands and the wives, and save the children from becoming homeless. Obviously, the law can do nothing if society itself encourages the causes which lead to divorce. If divorce is not to be totally banned, in what form should it be allowed? Who should exercise the right of divorce, should only man or only woman, or both? In the last alternative, should man and woman have the same procedure for severing the bond of marriage, or should each sex have a separate procedure? In all, these are the five theories in respect of divorce: Free divorce without any legal or moral restriction. There are those who look at marriage only from a viewpoint of pleasure-seeking; who attach no sanctity to it; and who do not take into consideration the social value of home and family. They think that the sooner the bonds of marriage are removed and replaced, the more pleasure will be afforded to man and woman. He who says that the second love is more pleasant supports this theory. In this theory not only has the social value of the family been forgotten, but also the delight and satisfaction, which the stability of a conjugal union affords, has been ignored. So, this theory is the most puerile and immature. Marriage is a sacred undertaking. It is a union of hearts and souls which must be kept safe and intact. The word divorce should be expunged from the dictionary of human society. The woman and the man who marry each other should know that, except for death, nothing can separate them. This is the same theory, which for centuries has been advocated by the Catholic Church, and is still being advocated. The supporters of this theory are on the decrease in the world. Now only Italy and the Catholic Spain adhere to it. We often hear that, even in Italy, men and women are raising their voices against this law and efforts are being made that the law of divorce should be officially recognised. Many people are no longer willing to continue to suffer the boredom of their unsuccessful marriages. Some years ago, the Daily Express published an article under the heading, â€Å"Marriage in Italy Means Bondage for Woman†. This article said that, at present, owing to the non-existence of divorce, many people in Italy have to resort to unlawful sexual relations. More than five million Italians believed that their lives were nothing but sin. An Italian daily wrote that the prohibition of divorce had created a big problem for the Italian people. Many of them had renounced their Italian nationality for that very reason. When an Italian agency organised an opinion-poll, 97% of the women replied in the negative to the question whether divorce was repugnant to the religious principles. Still the Church sticks to its view and continues to adduce arguments in support of it. There is no doubt that marriage is a sacred bond and it should be lasting and durable. But it can last only as long as both the spouses co-operate with each other. There are situations when a mutual understanding between a wife and her husband is not possible. In such circumstances the forces of law cannot be used to keep them attached to each other in the name of a conjugal bond. The theory of the Church has been a complete failure. It is not unlikely that the Church itself may be compelled soon to revise its views. Hence, we need not discuss this theory any further. Marriage is dissoluble by man and not by woman. In the ancient world many people held such a view, but now we do not think it has any supporters. So we need not discuss it also. Marriage is a sacred institution and the domestic system is respectable, but the way to divorce, with certain conditions, should be open to both the spouses and the procedure of dissolving a marriage should be the same for both of them. The upholders of similarity of family rights, wrongly called equality of rights between man and woman, support this theory. According to these people the same conditions, the same limits and the same restrictions as exist in the case of woman, should also exist in the case of man and the same ways, to get out of the deadlock, as are open to man should be open to woman also. They reject any other solution, which is unjust and discriminating. No doubt the marriage institution is sacred, the domestic system is respectable, divorce is abominable and it is an essential duty of society to remove the causes which lead to divorce, yet divorce cannot be totally banned and the way out of a deadlock must be kept open to both man and woman. Anyhow, the procedure to be adopted for the dissolution of marriage should be different in their respective cases. Divorce is one of the instances of dissimilar rights of man and woman. This is the theory which represents the Islamic point of view, and the Muslim countries are partially following it. 2. 2. 9 Divorce in Islam In our age divorce has become a world problem as all grumble and complain about it. Those whose laws prohibit divorce totally complain of the non-existence of a way to escape from unsuccessful and unsuitable marriages. On the other hand, those who have opened the door of divorce, equally for both man and woman, complain about the growing rate of divorce and the instability of domestic life, and its harmful effects. Those who have given the right of divorce to men only express their dissatisfaction on two accounts: Firstly, some mean people, after years of married life, unexpectedly divorce their old wives who had spent the best part of their youth with them, simply because they suddenly feel eager to have a new wife. Secondly, some unchivalrous people refuse to divorce a wife, with whom there is absolutely no possibility of a mutual understanding and a continued joint life. It often happens that, for some reasons, the differences between a husband and a wife reach such a stage that no possibility of reconciliation is left, and they practically separate from each other. In such circumstances, the only sensible way is to sever, legally, the relations which have already been practically severed, and to allow both of them to hoose new partners-in-life. But some men, to harass their wives and to deprive them of enjoying a conjugal life, decline to divorce them. They leave the woman, in the words of the Qur’an, â€Å"in a state of hanging†. Such people are far away from the teachings of Islam, though they use the authority of the Islamic law for their improper behavior. Their conduct gives an impression to those who are not acquainted with the depth and the spirit of the teachings of Isla m, that this is the way Islam wants divorce to be. The critics ask sarcastically whether Islam has really allowed men to harass their wives as much as they like, sometimes by divorcing them and sometimes withholding divorce, and at the same time to have the mental satisfaction that they have only used their lawful and legal right. The critics say that such an action constitutes a glaring example of injustice and cruelty. They ask â€Å"If it is true, as the Muslims claim, that the Islamic laws have been organized on the basis of justice and righteousness, what measures have Islam taken to prevent this kind of injustice? † About the cruelty and injustice of such acts there can be no doubt. Islam, as we shall show, has taken cognizance of this situation and has thought of measures to counteract it. The important question is: What is the proper way of preventing this injustice and cruelty? Are the acts of injustice due to any inherent defect in the law of divorce, or should their real cause be looked for somewhere else? Can they be stopped by modifying the law or are some other measures required? Islam has its own view as to the solution of the social problems. Some people think that they can be solved either by framing a new law or by changing the existing one. But Islam realizes that a law has its own limits. It can be effective only within the range of the dry contractual relations. As for the sentimental relations, it alone cannot do much, and we should have recourse to other measures also. As we shall show latter, Islam has fully utilized the force of law as far as it can be effective. It has not failed in this respect. 2. 2. 10 Ignoble divorces First, we take up the present day problem of ignoble divorces. As a matter of principle, Islam is strongly opposed to divorce. It wants that it should not take place as far as practicable. It allows it only as a last resort in the cases where separation is unavoidable. Those who frequently take a new wife and divorce the old one are denounced by Islam as the enemies of Allah. The Holy Prophet said that Allah dislikes and hates the man who regularly changes his wives, and the woman who regularly changes her husbands. Such people are the enemies of Allah. It was reported to the Holy Prophet that Abu Ayyub Ansari had decided to divorce his wife. The Prophet knew the woman personally. He also knew that Abu Ayyub’s decision was not justified. He said: â€Å"Divorcing Umme Ayyub (Abu Ayyub’s wife) is a deadly sin†. The Holy Prophet said that Gabriel had exhorted and counselled him so much in respect of women that he felt that it was not permissible to divorce a woman, except when she was guilty of adultery. Imam Sadiq (P) has reported that the Holy Prophet said: â€Å"There is nothing more pleasing to Allah than the house where a marriage takes place, and nothing is more displeasing to Him than the house where it is severed by divorce† Abu Dawud in his book, ‘Sunan’ has reported the Prophet as having said: â€Å"Allah has not permitted anything more hateful than divorce. In other words, though Allah has permitted divorce, He dislikes it the most. The great religious leaders (Imams) have abstained from divorcing, as far as possible. In their lives the cases of divorce were extremely rare. They resorted to such an action only when they had very solid grounds for it. For instance, Imam Baqir (P) married a woman. She became his favourite, but on one occasion he noticed that the woman was inimical to Imam Ali Ibn Abi Talib and cherished malice against him in her heart. He had to divorce her. In reply to the question as to why he had divorced her when he liked her so much, the Imam said that he did not want to have a piece of the fire of Hell by his side. 2. 2. 11 Natural laws in respect of marriage and divorce In a civil society the only natural law is the law of liberty and equality, on the basis of which all social rules should be framed. But in respect of a conjugal contract, besides the general principles of liberty and equality, nature has prescribed certain other laws also, which must be adhered to in the case of marriage, dower, maintenance and the last stage of the process, that is divorce. It is of no use to bypass nature. As Alexis Carrel has pointed out, the biological and other laws of life are as hard, ruthless and irresistible as the astronomical laws. 2. 3. 1 Marriage means attachment and union, and divorce means separation. Nature has designed the law of marriage in such a way that man acts with a view to appropriate woman, and woman withdraws with a view to fascinate and mislead man. Man wants to take possession of the body of woman and woman wants to captivate the heart of man. The foundation of marriage is laid on love, union and fellow-feeling, and not on mere co-operation and companionship. In the family structure, the fair sex occupies the central position, and her opposite sex the peripheral one. From all this it automatically follows that nature must have had special rules for the dissolution of family life also. We have quoted earlier an intellectual as saying that mate-seeking means an attack on the part of man for the purpose of appropriation and a withdrawal on the part of woman for the purpose of enchantment and deception. Man being instinctively a hunting animal, his action is offensive and for him woman is a trophy which he must win. Mate-seeking is a battle and a struggle and marriage is appropriation and domination. A contract which is based on love and the feeling of oneness is not enforceable by compulsion. The law can compel two people to respect their contract on the basis of equality, and to co-operate with each other, but it cannot force them to love each other, to be sincere to each other, to make sacrifices for the sake of each other and to share each other’s happiness. If we want to maintain such a relationship between two people we have to adopt some measures other than legal. According to the natural mechanism of marriage, on which Islamic laws are based, a wife occupies the position of a person deserving love and respect in the family order. If, for some reason, she loses that position and is deprived of the love and attention of her husband, the base of the family structure falls off and the natural order is deranged. Islam looks at such a situation with regret, but it cannot assume marriage to be alive and constant even after the disintegration of its natural basis. Islam has taken special steps to ensure that the family life retains its natural form, which means that the wife should be loved and sought after, and the husband should feel attached to her and be ready to serve her. Islam has urged woman to beautify herself to please her husband, to give a display of her accomplishments for his sake, to satiate his natural desires and not to annoy him by disobedience. It has also exhorted man to love his wife, to show kindness and attachment to her, and not to conceal from her his love for her. These steps have been taken to make the sexual enjoyment limited to the domestic atmosphere, and to keep the wider society a field of work and activities other than sexual. Islam wants that extra-marital feedbacks between man and woman should be pure and unpolluted. All these steps have been taken with a view to keeping the family organisation free from the danger of dissolution and disintegration. 3. 0 Natural position of man in the domestic life From the Islamic point of view, it is extremely insulting to a woman that the law should force her to live with a husband who does not like her. The law can force a woman to live with a particular man, but it cannot secure for her the position of a beloved and central figure in the household, which she should have. The law can force a man to support his wife, but it cannot force him to be a devoted husband. Hence, when man’s love and attachment cools down the marriage becomes ineffective from the natural point of view. Here another question arises. If the wife’s love cools down, will the domestic life be affected? Will it continue as it is or will it come to an end? If it will remain intact, then how is it that the lack of love, on the part of the husband, terminates the domestic life and on the part of the wife it does not? Is there any difference between man and woman? If the lack of love on the part of the wife also terminates the domestic life, then naturally women should also have the right of divorce like men. In fact, the success of the domestic life depends on the mutual attachment of both the husband and the wife. But as we mentioned earlier, there is a difference between the mentality of man and that of woman. We have already quoted the views of the scientists on this point. Nature has so arranged that woman’s true and lasting love comes up only as a reaction of man’s attachment to her. Hence, woman’s attachment to man is the result of man’s attachment to her. Nature has placed the key of their mutual love within the control of man. If man loves woman and is faithful to her, woman also loves him and remains faithful to him. Woman’s faithlessness is definitely a reaction of man’s faithlessness. Nature has put the dissolution of marriage in the hands of man. It is man’s apathy and faithlessness that cools down woman’s love. On the other hand, woman’s indifference and apathy does not affect man. Hence man’s indifference to woman unlike the latter’s indifference to him leads to woman’s in-difference. Man’s frigidity is the end of conjugal life, but woman’s is not so. If man is sensible and faithful, he can always regain his wife’s love by showing affection and kindness to her. It is not insulting to him to compel his annoyed sweetheart by force of law, to continue to live with him, and to pacify her gradually. But it is unbearable for a wife to resort to the force of law to retain her protector and the object of her love. Of course, this is the case when woman’s indifference is not due to the immorality or cruelty of man. If man shows cruelty, the case is different. He cannot be allowed to misuse his position and to harass or ill-treat his wife. We shall discuss this point separately. Anyway man is in need of the body of woman and woman is in need of the heart of man. That is the difference between the two. Marriage is unbearable for woman if she does not enjoy her husband’s genuine protection and sincere love. . 1 Views of a lady psychologist Recently an article has been published by a French lady psychologist, Beatrice Maryo, who holds a doctorate in psycho-logy and works as a psychiatrist in a hospital of Paris. She herself is a mother of three children. In this article she has explained very well how a pregnant or a nursing woman needs the kindness and affection of her hu sband. She says: â€Å"From the time a woman feels that she is going to be a mother soon, she begins to search her body. She repeatedly looks at it and smells it, especially if she is expecting her first child. She feels so inquisitive as if she were a stranger to herself and wants to discover herself for the first time. When she feels the first movements of her tiny little child in her womb, she begins to listen attentively to every sound of her body. The presence of another being in her body makes her so happy that she feels inclined to seclusion and retirement. She wants to be alone with her tiny little child, who has not yet come into this world â€Å"Men, during the period of the pregnancy of their wives, have important duties to perform, but very regretfully they often shirk their responsibility. The future mother is in need of the feeling that her husband understands her, likes her, and protects her. Otherwise, when she finds that her belly has swollen up; her attractiveness has gone, the morning sickness has commenced, and she is afraid of childbirth pains, she would blame her husband, who had impregnated her, for all her troubles and discomforts. It is the duty of the husband to keep himself, more than ever, at the side of his wife during the months of her pregnancy. The whole family requires a kind and considerate father to whom the wife and the children may talk of their problems, their griefs and their joys. Even if their talk be meaningless or boring, it is still important. † â€Å"A pregnant woman very much wants others to talk to her of her child. A woman takes all the pride in becoming a mother. But when she finds that her husband is indifferent to the child, her sense of pride turns into a sense of contempt. She becomes sick of motherhood and pregnancy, and it becomes a sort of mortification to her. It is known that such women suffer a great deal on account of child-birth pangs The relation between mother and child is not a bilateral one. It is a trilateral relation: mother, child, and father. Even if the father is not present (as in the case of divorce), he has an important role in the internal life of the mother, that is in her thoughts and imagination, as well as in her sense of motherhood . This is what a lady intellectual, who is both a psychologist and a mother, has said. 3. 2 A structure built on the basis of sentiments A woman depends so much on the sincerity, kindness and protection of her husband that without his earnest co-operation even a child has little sense for her. She can endure the hardships of life only with his help. In such circumstances, how can it be possible to compel her, by the force of law, to remain attached to a man who is not willing to accept her? Is it not ironical that, on the one hand, we create an atmosphere in which men pay little attention to their wives and sow their wild oats elsewhere and, on the other, we try to thrust their wives on them by the force of law? As a matter of policy, Islam wants that man himself should seek a woman and should like her. It does not want to thrust a woman on him. As a general rule, where there is a question of love, devotion and sincerity, there can be no question of legal compulsion. If a husband dislikes his wife, it may be a matter of regret, but no force can be used to make him like her. Let us give an example. As we know, in the congregational prayers there is a condition that the leader of the prayers can be only that person who is pious and in whose piety the followers have faith. In this case, the relationship between the leader and the followers is based on the piety of the former, and the faith and devotion of the latter. If the body of the followers loses faith in a particular leader, whether rightly or wrongly, this relationship is severed. The law cannot guarantee its continuity. As it is a matter of feelings and sentiments, nobody can be compelled legally to have faith in a particular person. Even if a leader of the prayers possesses the highest degree of piety and virtue, he cannot compel others to offer prayers behind him. It will be highly ridiculous to file a suit in a court of law in this respect. It is even derogatory to the position of the leader of the congregational prayers to try to force people to offer prayers behind him. The same is the case with the relationship between the voters and the candidate for election. The people will vote for a candidate in whom they have confidence. If they do not elect a particular candidate, howsoever fit and suitable he may be, he cannot sue them. The only thing which should be done in such cases is to train the people on the correct lines and to raise their intellectual level, so that when they perform their religious duty, they may find out the really righteous people to follow and, when they perform their social duty, they may select the really deserving people to vote for. If, by chance, the people change their opinion subsequently without any rhyme or reason, that can only be a matter of regret, but there can he no question of compulsion or legal action in the matter. The domestic duty is exactly like the above-mentioned religious and social duties. Islam regards the family as a natural society, for the smooth running of which it has prescribed a particular procedure to be followed strictly. It is the greatest achievement of Islam that it has prescribed this procedure, for the West has not so far been able to solve its family problems. Not only that, but problems are multiplying and new problems are being added daily to the old ones. Fortunately, as the result of scientific investigations, the position is gradually becoming clear. We are fully convinced that the Western world will gradually accept the Islamic principles and precepts regarding the family laws. Anyhow, we do not believe that the real Islamic teachings are identical with what is being practised today as such. 4. 0 The Impact of Divorce on Children Until recently it had been assumed that divorce causes severe emotional trauma in children and symptoms of maladjustment are sometimes evident in both parents and children. The divorce has some profound effects on children and the long term effects show that they suffer psychologically and have social difficulties for years from continued or new stresses linked to the separation and divorce of their parents. She also said that children of divorce are anxious about being able to form lasting relationships themselves as young adults. Divorce has a serious effect on children. Children have some of the same feelings as victims of a natural disaster may experience, such as loss, grief, and vulnerability to forces that they can not control. Pre-school children are affected more severely in the absence of the father but these negative effects can be reversed by an emotionally stable mother who gives reinforcement in the appropriate sex-type behavior to the child. Young children may be too immature to integrate the intensity of the stress of parental loss. The older children may be apt to experience more stress and conflicts from divorce because of the undiluted aggression of the parent. Egocentric pre-schoolers, who see and understand things only in relation to themselves, assume themselves to be the cause of parental distress and interpret the separation as punishment†. According to a ten year study of twenty-one children between two and a half and six years old, now between 12 and nearly 18, a significant number of children felt that they were deprived of the nurture of a more protected life that they saw and wished for in intact families even though these children had experienced divorce first hand for two-thirds of their lives. School children can cope with separation better than pre-schoolers, even though intense pain, loneliness, and a feeling of deprivation is present, because young children can only think of the departure of one parent which is usually the father. Children think one parent is responsible, become angry with both parents, and show distressing behavior to one parent. She also said that not only the separation and divorce causes difficulty for school-age children, but also their move to new neighborhoods, schools, and being put in new environments causes a decline in school performance because they are not focused on learning but are always wishing for their parents to reunite. 4. 1 Adjustment of Boys and Girls Children of divorced mothers, especially boys, tend to harass their mothers, nagging and whining, in the first year, and are more disobedient and neglectful toward her than children of intact families. The boys have more behavior problems than girls after the divorce. The more boys than girls in single-parent families and that few boys stayed with their fathers while more girls stayed with their mothers. His studies revealed that difficulties arise in the development of children regardless of their sex in the absence of fathers. Boys tend to have more difficulty adjusting to divorce than girls, because boys are less likely to have role models than girls for learning gender related behavior resulting in limited social skills. He added that these limited social skills may be why it is more difficult for boys to adjust, while there were indications that adolescent girls of stepparents had higher incidences of aggression, sexual behavior, drug involvement, and school difficulties than girls of intact families. The courts seem to assume that fathers appear to perform better raising boys yet the numbers of boys and girls are equally divided and most single parent families have two children. Father is willing to cook, sew, wash clothes, clean and tend to minor cuts and bruises, fevers, colds, and rashes in order to preserve a family structure. They continued to explain that one father and his daughters, before and after the divorce, built rockets, electric motors, doll houses, baked bread and sewed dresses, played touch football and softball, wrote and staged plays, and, without much success, he tried to teach his daughters how to fish. . 2 Positive Effects of Divorce on Children: There could be positive benefits for the child after divorce, if the child is freed from a violent atmosphere present when the parents were together. There are some positive outcomes of divorce to be reported as well. The few positive outcomes are an increase in maturity and independence, as well as the increased co mmitment to maintaining relationships. She noted that studies have shown that post-divorce families and single parent or reconstructed families can be successful in improving the quality of life or both adults and children by reducing an environment of conflict. After being removed from a disturbing parent the children prefer the time after the divorce to the time within the intact family before the divorce, because they said that it is a relief to have no more fighting. The space provided by the separation of the parents enables the older adolescents to develop an emotional detachment from the family and to begin the normal development tasks for an adolescent which is individualization. There is a time of emotional divorce during the period preceding the divorce. Divorce is a preferred alternative to an unhappy marriage children can grow healthy in many types of situations if the three following conditions are met: first, the basic needs for the children must be met, such as, love and physical care, understanding, discipline and safety; second, the children need a sense of belonging or being able to say, this is my own family where I am an important and special person; and finally, they also need role models of both sexes in their lives to help them determine their proper male or female roles. 4. Negative Effect of divorce on Child: Children without biological fathers in the home are roughly three times more likely to commit a crime that leads to incarceration than are children from intact families. Higher divorce rates in a society lead to higher suicide rates among children. Children of divorce demonstrate an earlier loss of virginity, more cohabitation, higher expectations of divorce, higher divorce rates later in life, and less desire to have children. These effects on future family life perpetuate the downward spiral of family breakdown. Children of divorced parents are significantly more likely to become delinquent by age 15, regardless of when the divorce took place, than are children whose own parents are married. When parents divorce, most children suffer. For some, this suffering turns into long-lasting psychological damage. Neglect of children, which can be psychologically more damaging than physical abuse, is twice as high among separated and divorced parents. 5. 0 Findings Levels of Divorce: The divorce rate is found to be inversely related to duration of marriage. This has also been found elsewhere. The least satisfactory marriages end in divorce first thereby reducing the proportion of the high-risk marriages among the surviving unions. When newly wed partners discover that they are incompatible whatever the cause is, they opt for divorce rather early in the marriage. In rural Bangladesh, marriage makes the bride live in the husband’s home and with in-laws. The in-laws and relatives expect her to adjust to her new situation and demand a lot from her. Her failure to adjust to in-laws and to satisfy them can cause marital discord and the result of which is ill-treatment to her by her husband or in-laws leading to divorce. Polygyny and Divorce: Polygyny is a special feature of Muslim society and is allowed on condition of the husband’s equal treatment of all his wives. Infertility, particularly inability to give birth of a male child and chronic illness of the wife are two main reasons which enhance the divorce risk. They can lead either to a marriage of the husband to a second wife (and becoming a polygynous marriage) or to a divorce of the previous wife followed by another marriage. In Teknaf, 17 per cent of the current marriages were polygynous as opposed to five per cent in Matlab. Of the polygynous men, 26 per cent were in their twenties, and 40 per cent in their thirties. The high incidence of polygyny at younger ages of husbands is much more due to widely accepted norms and values held by men in this community than to wives’ infertility or chronic illness Polygynous marriages were found to be divorce-prone; the odds of divorce were 2. 5 times higher for polygynous unions than for monogamous unions other things being equal. A marriage in which the husband already had one or more than one wife faces more complex adjustment problems than a marriage with a man having no other wife. Moreover, polygynous men have less to lose from divorcing one of the wives. They also tend to have a lower commitment to marriage as an institution and can more easily disregard the stigma of divorce and remarriage. High tensions among co-wives and deeply ingrained attitudes of polygynous men towards women and marriage in general may raise the divorce rate. What remains unknown is whether the high risk of divorce of polygynous marriages is caused by complex adjustment between co-wives or by attitudes of polygynous men to women and marriage as institution. Future studies should attempt to deal with this issue. In Nigeria, it has been found that polygynous unions with two wives were the most stable whereas unions with three or more wives were associated with the highest rate of disruption [Brandon 1991]. In our study population, unions with three or more wives simultaneously exhibited higher divorce rate, but occurred less frequently than unions with two wives. Spouses’ History of Marital Disruption: Spouses who already experienced a divorce in their earlier marriage probably faced substantial adjustment problems with which they were unable to cope. We hypothesize that remarriages exposed them to the same problems and for this reason they remain vulnerable to divorce. While expecting high risks of divorce of remarriages, one must take into account that in rural Bangladesh women are aware of the lower prospects of remarriage for them than for men and this may force women to compromise to keep the marriage intact. Reconciliation is more likely for wives than husbands since the cost of divorce is higher for women and alternatives are hardly available (women are economically and socially dependent). One of the underlying causes for this is undoubtedly the unequal position of women compared to men in Bangladesh society. Our data exhibit a gender difference in the risk of divorce of remarriages. While grooms who remarried after a divorce or after becoming a widower did not have a higher risk of divorce than grooms who married for the first time, brides who remarried (after divorce or becoming a widow) had a higher risk of divorce than brides who married for the first time. The difference in divorce propensity between previously divorced brides and grooms may have several explanations. An important one is related to the weaker position of the wife in the husband’s family. She is blamed for every trivial fault; for such faults her husband is less likely to be blamed. Too much blame expressed too frequently puts her marriage in discord leading towards divorce. Of the brides who were divorced before, 42 per cent were still in their teens. Their inability to live up to the expectations of their husbands and in-laws may have brought marital discord leading eventually to divorce as a solution to marital unhappiness. Another possibility is that the presence of children from a previous marriage may make her stay more problematic than that of her peers who had married for the first time. Higher instability of remarriages of women than men may be explained by men’s abuse of the right to divorce and women’s powerless. Age at Marriage: The groom’s age at marriage was inversely related to the risk of divorce. Young grooms tended to marry young brides. Many grooms were perhaps too young to be able to carry the heavy load of responsibilities involved in marital life. Divorce is likely to be more common among couples who are poorly prepared to undertake such responsibilities. This finding is consistent with the common explanation that young age at marriage may be associated with poor role performance as a spouse. Groom’s Education and Household Socioeconomic Status: Higher levels of education of grooms were associated with lower odds of divorce in the first year of marital life. Literacy in Teknaf was very low (14 per cent of grooms had one to two years of schooling) and nearly all brides were illiterate. The odds of divorce were higher if grooms came from households with fewer assets. Marital life may have raised tensions and caused unhappiness. Moreover, it could be that poor grooms were less tolerant and respectful to their wives (and vice versa) than rich grooms. Inverse relationships of education and socioeconomic status with divorce have also been reported in other studies conducted in Bangladesh. Infertility and Divorce: In rural Bangladesh, child bearing soon after marriage is desired. Contraceptive use before first birth is in general very low and was in the study population even lower than the national average derived from the Demographic and Health survey conducted in 1993/1994. The birth of a child after marriage may signify a degree of spousal satisfaction that is conducive to marital stability. Our analysis reveals that the odds of divorce were much lower if women had a live birth in the proceeding six-months than if women had not had a birth. The birth of a child helps to keep couples together at least until they are older. 6. 0 Bibliography www. google. com www. webbangladesh. com www. newnation. com www. marrigemakers. com do u think that there is any impact on the children if they are divorced. What type of problem please specify. Have u faced any legal problem while getting divorced.